General chemistry Bonds, equilibrium, acids/bases, redox, thermodynamics. Biochemistry Amino acids, protein structure, enzymes, lipids, carbohydrates, metabolism. Molecular biology DNA replication, transcription, translation, gene regulation, chromatin, RNA processing. Genetics and genomics Mendelian genetics, mutation, recombination, inheritance, sequencing, GWAS, population genetics. Cell biology Membranes, organelles, trafficking, cytoskeleton, signaling, cell cycle, apoptosis, differentiation. Treat molecular biology as prerequisite rather than reteaching it. Physiology Cardiovascular, nervous, immune, endocrine, respiratory, renal systems. Focus on interactions between cells, tissues, and organs. Evolution Natural selection, drift, phylogenetics, molecular evolution, comparative biology. Experimental biology PCR, cloning, CRISPR, microscopy, flow cytometry, sequencing, cell culture, animal models, controls, assay failure modes. Biostatistics and causal inference Experimental design, hypothesis testing, multiple comparisons, confounding, batch effects, power, causal graphs.